A Sibling's Brushstrokes

Loose brushstrokes dappled in hues of earthy tones capture these small moments of adolescence depicted through Constant Huntington’s watercolor portraits of his brother and sister. The Porter-Phelps-Huntington Museum collection recently acquired these two watercolor paintings by Constant Huntington. Born in 1876 to the parents of George Putnam Huntington and Lily St. Agnam Barrett Huntington, Constant grew up in Boston, MA. In 1916 he married Gladys Theodora Putnam. Together they lived in Sussex, England where they raised their daughter Alfreda Huntington before moving to Westminster, London where he resided until his death in 1962. The first of Constant’s watercolors is of his sister, Catharine (b.1887). She is situated against an unidentifiable background of blues and reds that bleed into one another. She sits waist up with her body turned in a ¾ profile towards the viewer. Her skin is pale but rendered with subtle hues of warmth that garner the complexion of a child. Constant captures his sister's features with swift strokes of the brush as seen with the simple outlines of her eyes that turn down and her quiet smile. Her hair falls loosely into her eyes which further removes the viewer from her gaze, yet she remains quite accessible given that she is positioned so close to the forefront of the image. Whether Constant was aware of this dichotomy is unlikely, but in doing so the viewer can gain insight into a tender moment between siblings, yet her lack of detail and head turn provides a sense of ambiguity that allows the viewer to see a child from their own life and further connect to this tender moment.

From Catharine’s grip stems three vermillion blossoms, each upright and sturdy as if they are reaching up to greet Catharine who returns a glance down at them. While these flowers also lack some detail, Constant seems to have attempted some shading by going in with darker hues of the base colors. The green stem bleeds into the green of Catharine’s right sleeve making it somewhat difficult to distinguish between plant and girl.

The subject of the next watercolor by Constant could be one of his brothers, either Barrett or James. The boy too sits in profile to the viewer, this time turned completely to the side. His darker hair is pushed behind his ear yet still manages to fall in his face as he peers down. He is seated at a desk where he is painting with watercolors. His work mimics the flowers in Constant’s portrait of his sister, with the familiar shades of green and vermillion. Perhaps Constant was particularly intrigued with these flowers, or he had leftover colors he wanted to use. Or maybe they were all painting together and Catharine and/or the flowers were the subject. Constant’s understanding of human anatomy here is a bit underdeveloped. For example, he depicts the boy wearing a loose and boxy jacket which makes it hard to imagine the body of a child occupying such a large garment underneath. Additionally, his hands that secure the paper and paintbrush are quite large and awkward in their positioning. If you take a closer look at his right hand that commands the brush, his thumb seems to be just as long as his pointer finger.

With this piece Constant appears to have avoided the bottom half of his brother; even though he is seated at a desk, his legs are all but a large shape of light green. Constant pays particular attention to the jacket where he adds darker colors for the shading and creases. I find the line work quite lovely on the edge of the hood and undershirt. I imagine Constant switching to a smaller brush or lightly using the tip to capture these fine details. He also seems to experiment more with details in the face, as seen with the nostril and added pupil that is otherwise absent in his work of Catharine.

Schoolgirl Art Needlework Samplers

From the mid 18th to the mid 19th century, one of the most distinctive milestones in a girl’s education was the creation of a needlework sampler. A sampler - defined as a piece of needlework with various stitches- was part of the learning process for young girls to attain skills in sewing. A young girl would usually begin to sew around the age of six, often taught by her mother or another woman in the family. By the age of eight or nine girls would complete a first sampler; a piece usually composed of the alphabet, numbers, a Bible verse, or a quote about morality. The sampler piece above was created in 1814 by Bethia Huntington at just eight years old and serves as an excellent example to these preliminary works completed at a young age. The bottom line of Bethia’s work reads “Middletown,” a nod to when her father, Dan Huntington, moved the family from Litchfield to Middletown in 1809 for seven years while he was a minister at the First Congregational Church in Middletown. In 1816 they returned to Hadley after the death of the children’s grandfather, Charles Phelps.

 Another wonderful sampler in the Porter-Phelps-Huntington collection was wrought by Eliza Fitch Lyon at eight years old. Born in 1817, Eliza was the daughter of Maria Warner and Samuel Huntington Lyon. In 1827 she married Theophilus Parsons Huntington in Hadley, where they settled down to raise their three children. Eliza’s piece offers more insight into these initial samplers and is comprised of an alphabet with a supplemental Bible quote and botanical detailing. She takes her work to the next level with the inclusion of intricate floral patterns weaving throughout the piece. If you look closely under the cursive N through X, she experiments with fading blue thread into yellow. The detailing of this piece is quite remarkable regardless of age. Eliza includes numerous fonts and colors and has a keen eye for the details of the flora she includes at the bottom of the piece.

As skills in sewing progressed, plants, animals, or other objects copied from a pattern would sometimes supplement the writing. The execution of writing on samplers with increasingly more intricate designs and motifs provided practice for detailed stitching, along with the hope that producing works with such sentiments would foster virtue by publicly exhibiting morality and accomplishment. In the 19th century, the Pioneer Valley was known in the embroidery world for its “White Dove Style.” This style of sewing white doves emerged in the 1790’s and its popularity continued into the following few decades. Although there are no White Dove pieces at the Porter-Phelps-Huntington Museum, the collection contains several sewing samplers; one created by Bethia Huntington in 1814 (shown above) and another by Mary Huntington in 1826 when she was eleven. These works were displayed in homes with pride and as visual representations of their young daughter’s accomplishments.

By the time a young woman reached the age of fourteen it could be expected that she would have created several sewing samplers. Next would come a mixed media figurative scene, interchangeably referred to as either a pictorial scene or a silk embroidery. More than not these works incorporated other mediums such as watercolors into the needlework craft. For example, the piece above beautifully incorporates silk, watercolor, and satin. The plethora of mediums not only adds richness in texture but helps guide the eye through the depth of the harbor. Works as such tended to be very expensive to produce because they required several different skilled craftspeople to assist in creating the final product. Pieces as such not only showcased a young woman’s talent, but the aptitude to learn such craft implied the wealthy economic status of someone who could afford that kind of education.

When the Porter family crest was embroidered by Elizabeth Porter Phelps (circa 1760 - 1817), it was compiled from a painting on wood panel acquired by her mother, Elizabeth Pitkin Porter. The crest depicts five wings central to a plethora of vines and beautifully detailed birds of paradise. A coat of arms was a significant symbol for elite families in the Connecticut River Valley. Embroidering such was the height of needlework arts, as it created the “perfect form for displaying needlework, education, leisure, status, and family allegiance.” In this case Elizabeth may have been taught by her mother or other family members. Typically, such wonderfully elaborate embroidery would have been displayed in the parlor of the home for visitors to see. Although we know from the archives of her grandchildren that she likely commenced the project as part of her schooling at a young age, left it unfinished and returned to it in the final years of her life.

 This article is based off previous research done by Mount Holyoke College alum, Ann Hewitt. Her work on needlework is a part of her larger research paper Becoming Accomplished: The Porter Phelps Huntington Daughters. Her preliminary research on needlework was further edited and continued by Museum Assistant Evelyn Foster.

Sources

Alice M. Earl, Childlife in Colonial Days (Norwood, MA: Norwood Press, 1899), 17.

 https://www.pphmuseum.org/epp-needlework.

 “Object of the Month Archive About.” Massachusetts Historical Society. Accessed July 26, 2021. https://www.masshist.org/object-of-the-month/objects/schoolgirl-needlework-2002-08-01. 

 Porter-Phelps-Huntington Family Papers, 1698 - 1968 (Bulk: 1800 - 1950).

 “The ABCs of Schoolgirl SAMPLERS: Girls' Education and Needlework from a Bygone Era.” Milwaukee Public Museum. Accessed July 26, 2021. https://www.mpm.edu/research-collections/history/online-collections-research/schoolgirl-samplers. 

Alfreda's Autograph Book

Also in a box donated by Katherine Urquhart Ohno, we found Alfreda Huntington’s autograph book, filled with drawings and notes for her from friends and acquaintances. The amount of effort and artistic ability on display within this autograph book is remarkable.

Check out the entire book here!

Art by Patrizia, 1934. Caption says “With love to my dearest friend Alfreda”

Autograph books were small books passed around to gather thoughts and sometimes artistic endeavors of those they encountered, mostly friends and classmates.[1] They are the predecessors of modern practices such as writing in yearbooks. Autograph books owned by older teens and adults would primarily feature poetry, advice, or proverbs from their acquaintances.[2]

February 1934

Let’s throw all study books in the fire!!!

Nicoletta Pucci

Caption in Italian - let us know if you know what it says.

Are these two friends?

With love from

Fioretta Mazzei

The final marked page of her autograph book.

The entries in Alfreda’s Autograph Book were all created in 1934 and 1935, mostly while she was in Italy, as evidenced by friends’ names and the occasional caption in Italian. Alfreda would have been around 12-13 at the time. The various entries show a wide range of artistic ability, ranging from crayon sketches to realistic watercolor. A few names show up more than once. The last page with any markings, following a crayon drawing of a horse, is a single, undecorated signature, reminiscent of a more traditional, adult guestbook or autograph book. Perhaps the signatory was in a rush, perhaps it marks something of the transition into adulthood.

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Further Reading on Autograph Books

Morrison, Katie. “Family Life in 19th Century Autograph Books.” Indiana University Archives, Mar. 13, 2018.

References

[1] "Autograph Books."City of Red Deer.

[2] Allison, Lelah. “Traditional Verse from Autograph Books.” Hoosier Folklore 8, no. 4 (1949): 87–94.

Alfreda the Artist

As a young girl, Alfreda Huntington demonstrated remarkable artistic ability. In one of the boxes generously donated by Katherine Urquhart Ohno, we found Alfreda’s Anthology of Passages from my Favourite Books, which started life as blank books and was filled over time with color and memories.

Look at all the filled pages of the book here:

• Pages 1-34

• Pages 35-68

Alfreda’s Anthology of Passages from my Favourite Books most follows in the tradition of commonplace books. Commonplace books were blank books that the owner would fill with quotes and passages from favorite works, creating a personal anthology. Traditionally, commonplace books didn’t contain illustrations of quotations, but melding genres of homemade books and documents was common.[1] The practice of collecting quotations from others’ works spans back to antiquity and into today, but commonplace books peaked in popularity during the Renaissance and 17th & 18th centuries.[2]

For each passage from one of her favorite books that she chose to highlight, Alfreda would draw, and often paint, an accompanying illustration.

Alfreda here rewrote a passage from R.H. Bruce Lockhart’s Return to Malaya (Putnam, 1936), which was published by the company Constant Huntington was head of, and tells the story of Lockhart's journey to British Malaya. Lockhart was best known for his book Memoirs of a British Agent (Putnam, 1932).[3]

Some of Alfreda’s favorite books, as listed in this book, were Return to Malaya (1936)—as mentioned above, Karen Blixen - Out of Africa (1937), Apsley Cherry-Garrard - The Worst Journey in the World (1922), Thomas Hardy - Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891), Dostoevsky - The Idiot (1868), and Thomas Hardy - The Return of the Native (1878).

A selection from Out of Africa is the first one in the book. As the entries in the book appear to have been done in order, although the book is not dated, we can assume Alfreda began it in 1937 or later—age 15 or so.

Toward the end of the book, both the quotes and drawings became less complex—we don’t know why, nor do we know for how long she kept the book.

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Further Reading on Commonplace Books

Locke, John. A new method of making common-place-books. London : Printed for J. Greenwood, bookseller, at the end of Cornhil, next Stocks-Market, 1706. *EC65 L7934 706n. Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Sánchez-Eppler, Karen. “Practicing for Print: The Hale Children’s Manuscript Libraries.” Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 1, no. 2 (2008): 188-209.

Zboray, Ronald J., and Mary Saracino Zboray. “Is It a Diary, Commonplace Book, Scrapbook, or Whatchamacallit? Six Years of Exploration in New England’s Manuscript Archives.” Libraries & the Cultural Record 44, no. 1 (2009): 102–23.

References

[1] Biersdorfer, J. D. "Create a Digital Commonplace Book." The New York Times, February 10, 2021, sec. Technology.

[2] McKinney, Kelsey. "Social media: Nothing new? Commonplace books as predecessor to Pinterest UT Austin: Ransom Center Magazine, June 9, 2015.

[3] “Books: Sentimental Journey.” Time, December 7, 1936.

Botany and Watercolors

The Porter-Phelps-Huntington Museum has three watercolors noted as “Pictures (3), framed flower, watercolor. Made by Dan and Elizabeth Huntington's daughters at Miss Willard's School in Troy.”While it is uncertain which Huntington daughter can be ascribed as the artist, Elizabeth b. 1803, Bethia b. 1805, Mary b. 1815, and Catherine b. 1817 all attended the Emma Willard School where they had a rich exposure to the art of watercolors. The first watercolor in the collection is painted entirely in neutral hues. This process was typically used in the first quarter of the 19th century for “washing the shaded part of any colored flower or leaf” in shades of blue and black, later to be painted over in full color. These neutral colors served as a base for other pigments to be built on. Upon careful examination it appears that there may be two different plants flourishing from one stem: there are three large white flowers that emerge from extensions of the branch, as well as smaller blue bell-shaped blossoms below. The two flowers could represent two various stages of growth for one flower; however, they lack a similarity in appearance. There is also the question of whether the painting was finished. According to the 19th century guide, A Series of Progressive Lessons, Intended to Elucidate the Art of Flower Painting in Water Colours, the neutral wash was typically applied halfway as an undercoat for the actual color. For example, the next piece, a painting of blue flowers surrounded by lush green leaves, is fully colored, including the stem which is rendered in a dark greenish brown. If you look at the leaves on the left side of the painting, the inner halves are much darker than the outer. This is a perfect example of a student using a neutral tint to shade in the plant, and then painting over it with the intended color.

 The two paintings mentioned above are likely to have been painted after Elizabeth and Dan Huntington’s daughters gained experience with watercolors. It is also quite clear that they had studied botany, based on the intricate study of veins, stems, and shading. The third watercolor in the collection is quite different: a bouquet of orange and pale purple flowers with thick green leaves. It is worth noting that it seems to have been painted by someone with less experience. The student attempted to capture the orange flowers from different viewpoints as some turn outwards to the viewer and others are seen from the back and profile. The central part of the composition is comprised of a large purple-white flower. It looks like the student tried to portray the flowers tubular center with a dark circle at the core. However, the lack of perspective and bold outlines imply that the student was unfamiliar with conveying depth as well as the anatomy of plants. The stems are shakily painted, and the shading of each petal is somewhat inconsistent with harsher outlines instead of soft shading. Rather than a bouquet employing depth and careful consideration of the plant’s anatomy, it is very two-dimensional.

The ability to paint was considered essential for an established young lady in the early 19th century. It signified that she was educated and refined and was often taught at institutions where middle- and upper-class families sent their daughters. Simultaneously, the 19th century reached a high level of achievement for botanical illustration. The sciences, which were encouraged through exhibitions around the world, utilized the art of botany, which worked in tandem to supplement scientific writing. Painting such an intricate and delicate subject took much practice, and these works showcase the culmination of progress.

 Watercolors were considered an important part of education at the Emma Willard School. In 1823, Almira Phelps, the younger sister of Emma Willard, accepted her sister's invitation to teach at the school where she remained for eight years. While teaching at the Emma Willard School, Almira developed a keen interest in botany. In 1829 she wrote her first and most successful textbook, Familiar Lectures on Botany. Over the course of the next forty plus years, the textbook went through twenty-eight different printings - each illustrated with various woodcuts and engravings. Almira Phelps believed that watercolors were the most appropriate technique to learn, as the “kind of painting most convenient for ladies; it can be performed with neatness, and without the disagreeable smell which attends on oil painting.” Almira also taught a brief history of art that focused on the classical world, and gave summaries of the major schools of art. Her lecture on flower painting touches on how it can assist the study of botany in a similar vein to her introduction on watercolors: “the study of botany seems peculiarly adapted to females; the objects of its investigation are delicate; its pursuits, leading to exercise in the open air, are conductive to health and cheerfulness.” As an accomplished botanist herself, Almira stressed the importance to take time to observe and take note of the “very distinctive characteristics of particular species of plants might be disregarded in [the flowers] delineation” which makes one wonder whether the girls were looking at a real plant, or drawing upon memory, and, if these watercolors were intended as a form of scientific illustration.

 As previously mentioned, these paintings have no exact provenance. It is unclear exactly which Huntington daughter created them. Despite being a family that was so well documented, with extensive letters and diaries, these watercolors may have been lost in translation. A good guess as to who the artist might be is Bethia Huntington. She attended the Emma Willard School (circa 1820). When she returned home, she wrote to her younger sisters Mary and Catherine in the 1830’s who were then at the Emma Willard School with updates about how the plants were doing with concise notes about their growth. In her letters, she writes about her passion for flowers, and cared deeply about the family garden.

 This article is based off previous research done by Mount Holyoke College alum, Ann Hewitt. Her work on watercolors is a part of her larger research paper Becoming Accomplished: The Porter Phelps Huntington Daughters. Her preliminary research on watercolors was further edited and continued by Museum Assistant Evelyn Foster. 

Sources

Anonymous. A Series of Progressive Lessons, Intended to Elucidate the Art of Flower 

Painting in Water Colours (Classic Reprint). 30.

Barryte, Bernard. “Almira Phelps.” History of American Women, May 24, 2020. 

https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2013/08/almira-phelps.html. 

Eiseman, Alberta. “EDUCATING 19th-CENTURY SCHOOLGIRLS.” The New York 

Times. The New York Times, August 31, 1986. 

https://www.nytimes.com/1986/08/31/nyregion/educating-19thcentury-schoolgirls.

html. 

Huntington, Bethia or Mary. “Blue Flowers with Green Leaves.” Unknown. Watercolors. 

Porter-Phelps-Huntington Foundation.

Huntington, Bethia or Mary. “Bouquet of White and Yellow Flowers.” Unknown. 

Watercolors. Porter-Phelps-Huntington Foundation.

Huntington, Bethia or Mary. “Grey and Black Spray of Flowers.” Unknown. Watercolors. 

Porter-Phelps-Huntington Foundation.

Huntington, Mary. Mary Huntington ‘to’ Bethia Huntington. Letters. Box 20. Amherst 

College Archives & Special Collections. Porter Phelps Huntington Papers.

Phelps, Mrs. Lincoln. The Female Student. Leavitt, Lord & Company, 1836, 385, 371.

Rudolph, E. (1984). Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps (1793 - 1884) and the Spread of Botany 

in Nineteenth Century America. American Journal of Botany, 71(8), 382, 1161 - 

1167.

Schmidt M. Alesandra, Jacoby B. Trudy. “Herbs to Orchards: Botanical Illustration in the 

Nineteenth Century.” Watkinson Publications. 3.

Charting Map Making at the Emma Willard School

The Porter-Phelps-Huntington House Museum collection includes an undated, hand drawn map; Map of Europe, wrought by Elizabeth Huntington. The second child of Elizabeth Whiting Phelps and Dan Huntington, Elizabeth was born in 1803 in Litchfield, CT. Elizabeth completed this map at the Emma Willard school, located in Troy, New York, a female seminary founded by Emma Hart Willard with the goal of providing women with equal educational opportunities to their male counterparts. The choice of sending the Huntington daughters to Emma Willard School was most likely because of family relations. Emma Willard’s sister, Almira Hart Lincoln, married John Phelps in 1831. John Phelps was the younger brother of Charles Phelps (b. 1772), Elizabeth’s grandfather. Emma Willard’s son also lived with the Huntington’s at Forty Acres while he attended Hadley’s Hopkins Academy. The Emma Willard School opened its doors in 1821 with 90 students from across the country, one of which was Elizabeth. Their daughters Bethia and Mary also attended the school, and references to their enrollment can be found in family correspondence. Following her graduation from Emma Willard, Elizabeth went on to teach at the school.

Even though there is no date on the map, we can place it around the time when ‘mappery’, or map making, was beginning to take shape as an integral part of the American educational system. In the late 18th century, schoolgirl maps became increasingly popular. After the revolution, female academies and Quaker religious institutions assured that mappery was for all students, regardless of gender or economic background. Students with less financial means would often use the spare blank pages in the back of books for their map-making studies. In comparison, wealthier students had access to notebooks dedicated to this subject. In the years to follow, the publishing of geography textbooks boomed, thus allowing for the dissemination of geographical information. Two textbooks commonly used in mappery education was Jedidiah Morse’s Geography Made Easy and Joseph Goldsmith’s A View of the Earth, which further encouraged educators in the 18th century to implement uniform standards in map making education. One book in the collection of the Porter-Phelps-Huntington Museum wonderfully encapsulates these academic visions. Written by Samuel Butler and published in 1826, An Atlas of Ancient Geography consists of “21-colored maps with a complete accentuated index.” These maps are much smaller than the one by Elizabeth (they measure about 9 ¾” by 7 ½”), however they show a similar level of detail as well as intricate labels that guide the reader through the respective region. Dr. Butler is the author of numerous other geography texts including A Sketch of Modern and Ancient Geography, for the Use of Schools.  Emma Willard also wrote one of the most widely printed textbooks and one of the first historical atlases of the United States: Ancient Atlas to Accompany the Universal Geography by William Woodbridge and Emma Willard was first published in 1828 in tandem with Willard’s History of the United States, or Republic of America: Exhibited in Connection with its Chronology and Progressive Geography by Means of a Series of Maps. Together these two works were the first to treat American geography and history as interdependent subjects, employing maps as an essential pedagogical tool. Willard used the spatial dimension of the American past to engage students, integrate history and identity, and – most importantly – to consolidate national identity. At such a prestigious institution, mappery was accepted as one of the first appropriate subject for girls and was frequently used as a path for literacy.

In school, mappery held a different significance for boys and girls. For the men, it was presented as a way to teach skills of survival and navigation, while for women it was often an exercise in precision, an aid to retain general knowledge, and a way to show off artistic talent, particularly for handwriting and lettering skills. According to the American historian and Professor Susan Schulten, an aim of female education after the American Revolution was to “prepare [young women] for a life of usefulness and social exchange.” Mappery was thought to fulfill those goals and help young women become culturally literate. This is wonderfully evident in Elizabeth’s map with its precise line work and artistic labels. Her map not only demonstrates the high skill level it took to achieve such accuracy, but also the rigorous mappery education allocated to students in the 18th century and onwards, especially at prestigious institutions like Emma Willard.

Other recordings of mappery are present outside of Elizabeth’s work. Martin Brückner, the author of The Geographic Revolution in Early America, discusses the 1800 diary written by 15-year-old Sally Ripley of Greenfield, Massachusetts who noted learning geography several times a week throughout the school year. Equally, Catherine Beecher a student at Litchfield Female Academy “found grammar, arithmetic, geography, history, and the ‘Accomplishments’ of map-drawing, painting, embroidery, and piano available.” An example belonging to Sarah Miller included one page with a hand drawn map of Vermont and Connecticut, with the towns in both states running parallel to each other, indicating an initial attempt at mappery. 

Elizabeth’s map of Europe drawn with black ink on canvas was quite large with a width of 22 ¼” and a height of 18 ¼”. Despite some fading, the careful borders and intricate calligraphy are still visible and showcase immense attention to detail. The art of successful mappery, (as seen by Elizabeth’s map), could be divided into three components: proficiency in map reading, map drawing, and map transfer. Map reading, the most common method in mappery education, is the recollection of place names and their locations. Map transfer was a more tactile approach to mappery, originally a way for younger students to learn about geography in a tangible manner. Educators would ‘transfer’ a map into a different medium, such as a tactile cloth puzzle. Map drawing was a labor-intensive process, and several methods were taught. The first method was to place a grid over both the map, and the drawing paper. The student would look at the gridded map and draw what was in each corresponding square. The lines of latitude and longitude on Elizabeth’s map are warped in similar ways which indicates that Elizabeth may have implemented the Mercator projection method, which was used to accurately represent cylindrical projection on a 2D surface. With the rise of female academies, map transfer evolved into a new medium such as embroidery. Although there are no embroidered maps in the Porter-Phelps-Huntington collection, Elizabeth Huntington’s map is an admirable example of map drawing that provides further insight into mappery education of the 18th century and is on display in the pine room at the museum.

This article is based off of previous research done by Mount Holyoke College alum, Ann Hewitt. Her work on mappery is a part of her larger research paper Becoming Accomplished: The Porter Phelps Huntington Daughters. Her preliminary research on mappery was further edited and continued by Museum Assistant Evelyn Foster.

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Sources:

Brückner Martin. The Geographic Revolution in Early America: Maps, Literacy, and National Identity. Williamsburg, VA: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.

Brückner, Martin. The Social Life of Maps in America, 1750-1860. Omohundro Institute of Early American History & Culture and UNCP, 2017.

Buehler, Michael. “A Landmark Historical Atlas by Emma Willard, America's First Female Map Maker.” Boston Rare Maps. Accessed July 7, 2021. https://bostonraremaps.com/inventory/1829-emma-willard-historical-atlas/.

Butler, Samuel. An Atlas of Ancient Geography. London: Longman, Rees, Orme Brown & Green, 1826.

Hewitt, Ann. Interview with Karen Sánchez-Eppler, January 17, 2020.

Huntington, Bethia or Mary. “Watercolors,” n.d. Porter-Phelps-Huntington Foundation. Hadley, MA.

Huntington, Elizabeth. “Map of Europe.” n.d. Porter-Phelps-Huntington Foundation.

Mason, Betsy. “19th-Century Schoolgirls Were Incredibly Good at Drawing Maps.” Culture. National Geographic, May 4, 2021. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/schoolgirl-maps-drawings-19th-century.

Morse, Jedidiah. Geography Made Easy. Boston, MA: Published by Thomas & Andrews, 1813.

Schulten, Susan. “Emma Willard and the Graphic Foundations of American History.” Journal of Historical Geography 33, no. 3 (2007): 542–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2006.09.003.

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